EARTH MATTER

OCCURRENCE IN EARTH 

➤ Earth is a rich source of elements, found either in native state or in compound form. 

➤ The solid phase of the earth is called the lithosphere. 

➤ Percentage distribution of elements in earth’s crust is as shown below : 

                    ➤ Ocean and seas, which form major component of hydrosphere, are again vast reservoirs of elements.

                   ➤ The major elements are Chlorine, Sodium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Calcium, Potassium and Carbon in that order. 

                   ➤ The minor elements are Bromine, Boron, Strontium, Silicon, Nitrogen, Lithium, Aluminium and Rubidium. 

                    ➤ Four elements, Chlorine, Bromine, Sodium and Magnesium

                    ➤ Manganese nodules found in the sea bed may form a potential source of some of the less common metals. 

                    ➤ The gaseous phase of the earth is called atmosphere.

                   ➤ The atmosphere mainly consists of nitrogen (78.09%), Oxygen (20.95%). Argon (0.93) and other gases (<1%). These gases are obtained by fractional distillation of air. 

                     ➤ Carbon dioxide forms about 0.04% of the atmosphere. 

                     ➤ Ozone exists mostly at the outer atmospheric level, where it helps in the absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, ozone is considered as chemical weed. On earth surface it is bluish toxic gas but in stratosphere, it is useful in protecting earth from UV-rays. 

                  ➤ Examples of elements accumulated in living organisms are : 1. Iodine in sea weeds 2. Vanadium in sea cucumbers 3. Potassium in plant leaf 

                  ➤ Examples of elements concentrated in different parts of living beings are : 1. Iron (Fe-11) in blood 2. Zinc in the eyes of certain animals 3. Magnesium in chloroplast 4. Copper in mollscus have blue colour fluid (blood) because copperions.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF MEDIEVAL INDIA ➤ The Bhakti Movement began in South India in the 7th Century.The Alvars (Vaishnavites) and Naynars popularised the Bhakti cult in South India. There were 12 Alvar Vaishnavite and 63 Naynar Saivite Saints. The writings of these saints were collected in the Tirumurai. The Tirumurai has been called as the Tamil Veda. Periya Puranam was composed by Shekkilar in the reign of the Chola king Kulottunga I.

 Ramananda was the first great Bhakti saint of North India. Raidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Pipa were his disciples. Kabir (1440-1518) belonged to a family of weavers. Kabir spent greater part of his life in Banaras. Kabir’s verses were included in Adi Granth.Raidas was a tanner. Dhanna was a Jat peasant from Rajasthan.Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born at Nankana Sahib. Kabir and Nanak were Nirguna Bhakti saints. Vallabhacharya was a Telugu Brahmana. He was the founder of Pushti marga (way of grace)

 Chaitanya (1486-1533) was the most prominent Vaishnav saint of Bengal. He popularized Krishna Bhakti. He was looked upon as living Krishna. Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer Bhakti Saint of Maharashtra. Jnaneswar wrote Jnaneswari. Jnaneswari is a commentary on Bhagavad Gita.

 Jnaneswar was the author of many hymns called Abhangas.Namdeva (1270-1350) was a tailor by caste. Namdeva travelled to North India and Punjab. Namdev’s Bhakti Songs have been included in the Adi Granth. Namdeva is considered to be a part of the Varkari tradition.

 In Assam, Sankaradeva (1449-1568) introduced bhakti. Sankaradeva’s sect is called Mahapurushiya dharma.Dadu (1544-1603) was inspired by Kabir’s doctrine. Tukaram’s teachings are in the form of Abhangas or dohas. Tukaram founded the Varkari Sect. Ramdasa wrote Dasabodha. Ramdasa was the Guru of Shivaji. The Lingayat Sect was founded by Basava.The biography of Chaitanya is ‘Chaitanya charitamrita’. The biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.

  

The disciples of Kabir later formed the Kabirpanthi sect. Jagjivan Das founded the Satnami sect. Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas, Vinaypatrika, Kavitavali. Surdas wrote Sur Surawali, Sahitya Ratna, Sursagar.Mirabai was a Rajput Princes of Merta. Mirabai married to Bhojraja, son of Rana Sanga. Mirabai was famous for her devotion to Krishna.

 Mirabai advocated image-worship and observance of special fasts. Mirabai wrote Several poems like Padavali; Ramanuja advocated the philsophy of Vishistadvaitavada. Madhvacharya founded the Dvaita philosophy. Nimbarka propounded the Dvaitadvaita philosophy.Nimbarka founded the Sanak Sampradaya.

The Maghal Empuror SHAHJAHAN

SHAHJAHAN (1628-1657 A.D.)

 ➤ Shahjahan was born at Lahore in 1592 A.D. ➤ Shahjahan’s childhood name was Khurram. ➤ Shahjahan was born to Jagat Gosain, daughter of Mota Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur. ➤ In 1612 Shahjahan married Arzumand Banu Begum who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal. 

➤ Champat Rai of Mahoba also rebelled. His son Chhatrasal rebeled during Aurangzeb’s reign.

 ➤ In 1631 Mumtaj Mahal died during childbirth at Burhanpur. She was first buried at Burhanpur but later transferred to Agra (Taj Mahal).

 ➤ Shah Jahan’s six children from Mumtaj Begum-Jahanara Begum, Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Roshan Ara Begum, Aurangzeb (born at Daulatabad) and Murad Baksh.

 ➤ Shah Jahan introduced 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 method in Mansabadari system. According to this a mansabdar had to keep horsemen 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 of his sawar rank. 

➤ Built Taj Mahal in the sweet memory of Mumtaj Mahal in 1632-1654 of marbles (white). 

➤ Built Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in Agra Fort. 

➤ Built Jama Masjid and Red Fort of Delhi and laid foundation of Shahjahanabad (the 7th city of Delhi). These were made of red sandstone. ➤ Jagannath Pandit was the poet of his court. ➤ Shah Jahan was an expert musician and his voice was very melodious. 

➤ Constructed Peacock throne (1628-1635). ➤ Attacked Hooghly against portuguese and captured it in 1632. 

➤ Foreign travellers who visit his court were Bernier (France). Travernier (France) and Manucci (Italy). 

➤ His period was the climax of Mughal architecture.

The VEDA & It's Classification as well as Important

RIG VEDA 

➤ It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions.

 ➤ A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families.

 ➤ Written between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab.

➤ The IX mandala is dedicated exclusively to Soma.

 ➤ The singer of the Rigveda is called the Hotra. 

➤ The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.

 ➤ Gayatri Mantra is the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda. Mentioned in 3rd mandal, written by Viswamitra. 

YAJUR VEDA 

➤ A ritualistic Veda. It is divided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns. The singer of the Yajur Veda is called Ardhavayu.

 SAMA VEDA ➤ Sam Veda derives its roots from Saman, which means a melody. A collection of melodies. A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all other were derived from Rig Veda. It contains the Dhrupada Raga. The singer of Sama Veda is called Udgata.

  ATHARVA VEDA ➤ A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 khandas. It is the latest Veda. Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula medicinal treatises etc. It contains charms and spell to ward off evil and disease. Its content throws light on the practices of non Aryans. In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti are described as uterine sisters–The two daughters of Prajapati. This veda is also known as Brahma Veda. 

Upanishadas ➤ The Upanishadas are philosphical texts. They are generally called Vedanta, as they came towards the end of the Veda. There are 108 Upanishadas. Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada. Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC-600 AD)

 ➤ Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. rememberance literature) comprises of 6 literary works : 1. Vedangas/Sutras 2. Smritis Dharmashastras 3. Mahakavyas (Epics) 4. Puranas 5. Upvedas 6. Shad Dharshanas.

 ➤ There are six Vedangas :

(i) Shiksha (Phonetics): Tratishakhya’- the oldest text on phonetics. 

(ii) Kalpa Sutras (Rituals): (a) Shravta Sutras/Shulva Sutra – deal with the sacrifices, (b) Grihya Sutras—deal with family ceremonies, (c) Dharma Sutras—deal with Varnas, Ashramas etc. 

(iii) Vyakarana (Grammar) : ‘Ashtadyayi’ (Panini) — oldest grammar of the word. (iv) Nirukta (Etymology): ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘Nighantu’ (Kashyap)— a collection of difficult vedic words—(‘Nighantu’— the oldest wordcollection of the-world; ‘Nirukta’—the oldest dictionary of the world). (v) Chhanda (Metrics): ‘Chhandasutras’ (Pingal)–famous text. (vi) Jyotisha (Astronomy) ‘’Vedanga Jyotisha’ (Lagadh Muni – the oldest Jyotisha text.

 ➤ There are six famous smritis: (i) Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)— the oldest Smriti text; Commentators : Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj, Kulluk Bhatt. (ii) Yajnavalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)— Commentators : Vishwarupa, Vijayaneshwar, Apararka (a king of Shilahar Dynasty) (iii) Narad Smriti (Gupta period),

GUPTA DYNASTY

Gupta Dynesty

Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta rule.He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha.The real founder of the Gupta power was Chandragupta I (319-355 A.D.) He was the first independent king with the title of Maharajadhiraja. He started the Gupta era in 319-320 A.D. He married a Lichchavi Princess. His empire included Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.

Samudragupta (355-380 A.D.) enlarged enormously the Gupta kingdom. His achievements are mentioned in the Prayag-Prasasti composed by Harisena. He defeated 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha. Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court. He was a great patron of art and adopted the title of Kaviraja. On some coins he is shown playing the Veena. V.A. Smith calls Samudragupta the ‘Napoleon of India’.Samudragupta had a disputed accession to the throne.

Virasena was the commander of Samdragupta during his southern campaign.Samudragupta performed the Aswamedha Yajna and struck gold coins of Yupa type. He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon Meghavarman to build a Monastery at Bodh Gaya. Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi.He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas by marrying princess Kubernaga.He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III and annexed his kingdom.He adopted the title of Vikramaditya.

Mehrauli iron pillar inscription mentions his authority over North western India and a portion of Bengal.Virasena’s Udaigiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world. He made Ujjain his second capital. His court contained 9 gems including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Fa-hien, Acharya Dignaga etc. Veerasena Saba was the court poet and minister of Chandragupta II. Amarkhaddava was his army general.Fa-hien, the Chinese traveller came during the time of Chandragupta II. He issued silver and copper coins.

Taxes Levied during the Gupta Dynasty

Bhag Kings share of produce Bhoga General tribute Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in cash Bedakbhog Irrigation tax Bhatta Police tax Charasana Grazing tax Chat Security tax Gupta Temples: Places Vishnu temple : Tigawa (Jabalpur) Dasavtar temple : Deogarh (Jhansi)

MAURYAN EMPIRE -2

Mauryan Empire Map

The territorial extent of the Mauryan Empire can be seen in the given map:

It spans more than five million square kilometers. It was surrounded on three sides by mountains: the Himalayas, the Ganges River to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Indus River, and the Arabian Sea to the west as can be seen in the map.

Rulers of the Mauryan Empire

Let’s examine the rulers who governed the Mauryan Empire below.

Chandragupta Maurya

Chandragupta founded the Mauryan empire. He was supported by Chanakya. Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favor if his son, Bindusara. According to Jain texts, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and went to the hills of Shravanabelagola (near Mysore) and committed Sallekhana (death by slow starvation).

Bindusara

Bindusara, the second monarch of the Mauryan Dynasty, was the offspring of Chandragupta Maurya. Also recognized as Amitraghata, which translates to “killer of enemies,” he held dominion over a significant expanse of India, skillfully unifying 16 nations beneath the Mauryan Empire. Bindusara adeptly annexed the region stretching from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, effectively establishing Mauryan influence across much of the subcontinent.

Notably, Bindusara cultivated harmonious diplomatic ties with the Greeks, with Deimachus serving as the envoy from the Seleucid emperor Antiochus I to Bindusara’s court.

Among his numerous spouses, Bindusara is believed to have fathered around 16 sons, including the renowned figure, Ashoka. Contrary to being the eldest, Ashoka, according to the Buddhist account of Ashokavadana, was designated as the governor of Ujjain during Bindusara’s rule. Following Bindusara’s demise, Ashoka ascended to power as the third Mauryan emperor.

Although historical records provide limited insight into Bindusara’s personal life and achievements, his reign significantly contributed to the expansion and consolidation of the Mauryan Empire. This laid a crucial foundation for the illustrious rule of his notable son, Ashoka.

Ashoka

Ashoka was a the greatest king of the Mauryan empire. As king, he was forceful and ambitious,
reinforcing the Empire’s dominance in southern and western India. However, his victory over Kalinga (262-261 BCE) was set out to be a defining moment in his life. After Kalinga war, looking at the devastation and violence, he decided to abjure violence and follow the path of Ahimsa.

Ashoka put the tenets of Ahimsa into practice by repealing sports like hunting and putting an end to forced labour and indentured slavery. The Dhamma Vijay policy also placed a strong emphasis on non- violence, which was to be observed by denying war and conquests as well as by refusing the death of animals.

After Ashoka, a series of less powerful rulers served. Dasharatha Maurya, the grandson of Ashoka, succeeded him. His first child, Mahinda, was intent on making Buddhism popular everywhere. Due to his eye defect, Kunala Maurya was not good at taking the enthrone, and Tivala, the descendant of Kaurwaki, passed away even before the death of Ashoka. Jalauka, another son, has a relatively uneventful backstory of life.
Under Dasharatha, the Empire lost a great deal of land, which Kunala’s son Samprati eventually took to recover.

Brihadratha

Brihadratha was the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, who reigned from around 187 BCE to 180 BCE. He was the grandson of Emperor Ashoka and the son of Ashoka’s son, Kunala.

Brihadratha’s reign was marked by political instability and internal strife, as many of his ministers and governors sought to increase their own power at the expense of the central government. According to tradition, Brihadratha was eventually assassinated by his own minister, Pushyamitra Shunga, who then established the Shunga dynasty and became the new ruler of India.

Brihadratha’s reign marked the end of the Mauryan Empire, which had once been the most powerful empire in India. Despite the decline and eventual fall of the Mauryan dynasty, the empire’s legacy continued to influence Indian culture and society for centuries to come. The period of Mauryan rule was marked by significant advancements in art, architecture, literature, science, and philosophy, as well as the spread of Buddhism throughout India and beyond.

Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire: The Mauryan Empire was the first pan-Indian empire. It covered a large area of the present Indian region except for Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and some parts of northeastern India, though it was centered around Magadha. Its boundary reaches parts of modern-day Iran. The empire was characterized by a strong central government, an efficient administrative system, and a well-organized army. They also had fair rules and laws, a system for measuring things that were the same everywhere, and they helped spread Buddhism.

The Mauryan Empire History

The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Kautilya. The Mauryan empire was established in 321 B.C.E. and continued till 185 B.C.E. Alexander’s death in 323 B.C.E. left a large power vacuum, and Chandragupta took advantage, gathering an army and overthrowing the Nanda dynasty in Magadha, in present-day eastern India, marking the start of the Mauryan Empire. After crowning himself king, Chandragupta took additional lands through force and by forming alliances.

Chandragupta’s chief minister Kautilya, also called Chanakya, advised Chandragupta and contributed to the empire’s legacy. Kautilya is also known for writing the Arthashastra, which describes how a state should organize its economy and maintain power.

During Emperor Ashoka, the empire was expanded to its biggest on the Indian subcontinent, spanning more than five million square kilometers. It was surrounded on three sides by mountains: the Himalayas, the Ganges River to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Indus River, and the Arabian Sea to the west. Patliputra, which resembles modern-day Patna in Bihar, was the capital of the Mauryan empire.